The meaning of my picture.

The meaning of my profile pic is simple.
This is how the class makes me feel...

1. Totally pissed off.
2. Irritated to no end.
3. Makes me wanna rip out my hair (literally)
4. THHIS CLASS BLOWS

Final Reflection

Well, after all is said and done, I really truly believed that I was going to learn about physics through this website. Don't get me wrong, I did learn a lot of interesting facts about science in general. I thought that all of the topics we covered were great. I really did enjoy them. None of them were too difficult. However, I still would not be able to tell you how any of the topics were physics-related. Actually, I can't even tell you what the definition of physics is. But I could Google it and find out. That's what I learned.

What I would keep the same? Keep using this website, in moderation.

What I would change? I would, as a teacher, explain how each subject was physics-related, and also teach students how to use the blogger website before starting. I have to say that it was quite difficult to just take on this project with barely any idea of what we were doing. We were all pretty lost at the beginning. And especially when we were having trouble, we were on our own. "Check my blog" was the response I heard to almost every question asked by a student. Also, the rules were changed so much, barely anyone could keep them straight. It made it quite hard to follow along week after week.

In addition, there was barely any supervision during this class period. Students literally could be doing anything on the computer, without anyone ever knowing. Don't get me wrong, I enjoyed it. It was like a glorified study hall instead of a college-bound physics class. And that's where I see the real problem. This class was supposed to be preparing us for college. With all due respect though, it was the biggest joke of a class to me. And it's not only me that thinks that either. I have heard many times, just in 4th quarter alone, of students saying that they with they would have taken a different class, any class for that matter, because physics was a waste of time. I took this class in hope of learning more into science. It didn't happen.

I think that if, as a class, we did this maybe every two weeks or so, it would have been a great project and experience. Also, if I actually knew how this was physics-related, because I know it has to be somehow, then this project would have been a great way to get out of the classroom.

Zones of the ocean? Who lives there?

Scientists have divided the ocean into five main layers. These layers, known as zones, extend from the surface to the most extreme depths where light can no longer penetrate. The ocean is divided into various zones to help us better understand what is happening. Some of these zones help us to understand the environment in that location, others help us understand which creatures live in which parts of the ocean. Some zones are established to help us better predict conditions within them. These deep zones are where some of the most bizarre and fascinating creatures in the sea can be found.

As we dive deeper into these largely unexplored places, the temperature drops and the pressure increases at an astounding rate. Plants are found only in the sunlit zone where there is enough light for photosynthesis, however, animals are found at all depths of the oceans though their numbers are greater near the surface where food is plentiful. Still, over 90 % of all species dwell on the ocean bottom where a single rock can be home to over ten major groups such as corals, mollusks and sponges. Our sun is the major source of energy for our ocean. It is not, we have discovered, the ONLY source of energy, but it is certainly a big deal. Three temperature zones in our ocean have been identified. Each zone has a different set of conditions within it and is populated by creatures that have different needs.

Epipelagic Zone - The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone and extends from the surface to 200 meters (656 feet). It is also known as the sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists. With the light comes heat. This heat is responsible for the wide range of temperatures that occur in this zone. In this zone, phytoplankton, which are algae and microscopic plants, live. They are the primary producers of the ocean, the lowest level on the oceanic food web. Using the process of photosynthesis, they convert carbon dioxide, water, and other nutrients to the simple carbohydrates, providing food for themselves and for higher organisms.

Mesopelagic Zone - Below the epipelagic zone is the mesopelagic zone, extending from 200 meters (656 feet) to 1000 meters (3281 feet). The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the mid-water zone. The light that penetrates to this depth is extremely faint. It is in this zone that we begin to see the twinkling lights of creatures. A great diversity of strange and bizarre fishes can be found here. In the mesopelagic zone, a number of organisms survive by spending daylight hours within this zone and then rising toward the surface during evening hours. In this way, they can feed off the phytoplankton and zooplankton available near and on the surface of the water while avoiding predators during the day. The most common organisms found in the mesopelagic zone are small fish, squid, and simple shellfish.

Bathypelagic Zone - The next layer is called the bathypelagic zone. It is sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This zone extends from 1000 meters (3281 feet) down to 4000 meters (13,124 feet). Here the only visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves. The water pressure at this depth is immense, reaching 5,850 pounds per square inch. In spite of the pressure, a surprisingly large number of creatures can be found here. Sperm whales can dive down to this level in search of food. Most of the animals that live at these depths are black or red in color due to the lack of light.

Abyssopelagic Zone - The next layer is called the abyssopelagic zone, also known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4000 meters (13,124 feet) to 6000 meters (19,686 feet). The name comes from a Greek word meaning “no bottom”. The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light at all. Very few creatures can be found at these crushing depths. Most of these are invertebrates such as basket stars and tiny squids. Three-quarters of the ocean floor lies within this zone. The deepest fish ever discovered was found in the Puerto Rico Trench at a depth of 27,460 feet (8,372 meters).

Hadalpelagic Zone - Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lays the forbidding hadalpelagic zone. This layer extends from 6000 meters (19,686 feet) to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the ocean is located in the Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 35,797 feet (10,911 meters). The temperature of the water is just above freezing, and the pressure is an incredible eight tons per square inch. That is approximately the weight of 48 Boeing 747 jets. In spite of the pressure and temperature, life can still be found here. Invertebrates such as starfish and tubeworms can thrive at these depths.

There are two general types of plants found in the ocean, those having roots that are attached to the ocean bottom and those not having roots, which simply drift about with the water. The rooted plants in the ocean are only found in shallow water because there is not enough sunlight to sustain photosynthesis in deeper waters. Since sunlight does not penetrate more than a few hundred feet into the ocean, most of the ocean is not capable of supporting rooted plants. Nevertheless, plants are found throughout most of the oceanic surface waters. The most abundant plants in the ocean are known as phytoplankton. These are usually single-celled, minute floating plants that drift throughout the surface waters of the ocean.

A bucket of seawater might hold a million microscopic diatoms, which are relatives of seaweed encased in glassy boxes. To grow, phytoplanktons need nutrients from the seawater and lots of sunlight. The most light occurs in the tropics but nutrients there, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, are often in short supply. When large quantities of diatoms and other phytoplankton are present they give a color to the sea. Spectacular phytoplankton blooms are found in cooler waters where nutrients are brought up from the sea floor during storms. The sea is home to billions of plants and animals.

Marine animals are divided into three groups: zooplankton, nekton, and benthos. Zooplankton are drifting animals and are usually small, however, they can grow to fairly large size. For example, the jellyfish and the Portuguese man-of-war are examples of larger types of zooplankton, which are unable to propel themselves and are therefore at the mercy of either wind or current. The zooplankton population also includes some temporary members such as fish eggs or larval forms of organisms, which may grow up and leave the plank-tonic community to join the nekton or benthos. Nektons are the free swimmers and probably the largest portions of familiar animals that are found in the ocean belong to this class. Common fishes, the octopus, whales, eels and squid are all examples of nekton.

The nekton category includes a number of very diverse creatures. The whale, dolphin and porpoise are certainly very different from codfish or trout because whales represent sea mammals whereas cod are true fishes. The third type of sea animal spends its entire life on or in the ocean bottom. This group of marine animals is called the benthos. It includes lobsters, starfish, various worms, snails, oysters and many more. Some of these creatures, such as lobsters and snails, may be able to move about on the bottom but their lifestyle is so bound up with the ocean floor that they are unable to survive away from this environment.

The ocean is such a wild subject. If you were to dive into the ocean, you would be able to see many creatures and plants. But there is so much more! In the ocean, there is still so much to discover. I bet even if we were to search for forever we wouldn’t be able to discover all that the ocean has to discover. If I had the chance, then I would become a professional diver or something of the sort. I would do it to discover other things, and not for the money. Try diving some time, you never know what you will discover!!

Holograms

Holography is a form of photography that allows an image to be recorded in three dimensions. There are two basic categories of holograms: transmission and reflection. Transmission holograms create a 3-D image when light that is all one wavelength, travels through them. Reflection holograms create a 3-D image when laser light or white light reflects off of their surface. There are holograms on most driver's licenses, ID cards and credit cards. You can see changes in colors and shapes when you move them back and forth, but they usually just look like sparkly pictures or smears of color. Even the mass-produced holograms that feature movie and comic book heroes can look more like green photographs than amazing 3-D images.

If you look at these holograms from different angles, you see objects from different perspectives, just like you would if you were looking at a real object. Some holograms even appear to move as you walk past them and look at them from different angles. Others change colors or include views of completely different objects, depending on how you look at them. Large-scale holograms, illuminated with lasers or displayed in a darkened room with carefully directed lighting, are incredible. They're two-dimensional surfaces that show absolutely precise, three-dimensional images of real objects. You don't even have to wear special glasses or look through a View-Master to see the images in 3-D. If you tear a hologram in half, you can still see the whole image in each piece. The same is true with smaller and smaller pieces.

The holograms you can buy as novelties or see on your driver's license are reflection holograms. These are usually mass-produced using a stamping method. When you develop a holographic emulsion, the surface of the emulsion collapses as the silver halide grains are reduced to pure silver. This changes the texture of the emulsion's surface. One method of mass-producing holograms is coating this surface in metal to strengthen it, and then using it to stamp the interference pattern into metallic foil. A lot of the time, you can view these holograms in normal white light. You can also mass-produce holograms by printing them from a master hologram, similar to the way you can create lots of photographic prints from the same negative.

But reflection holograms can also be as elaborate as the transmission holograms. There are lots of object and laser setups that can produce these types of holograms. A common one is an inline setup, with the laser, the mixture and the object all in one line. The beam from the laser starts out as the reference beam. It passes through the emulsion, bounces off the object on the other side, and returns to the emulsion as the object beam, creating an interference pattern. You view this hologram when white or colorless light reflects off of its surface. You're still seeing a virtual image -- your brain's interpretation of light waves that seem to be coming from a real object on the other side of the hologram.

Reflection holograms are often thicker than transmission holograms. There is more physical space for recording interference fringes. This also means that there are more layers of reflective surfaces for the light to hit. You can think of holograms that are made this way as having multiple layers that are only about half a wavelength deep. When light enters the first layer, some of it reflects back toward the light source, and some continues to the next layer, where the process repeats. The light from each layer interferes with the light in the layers above it. This is known as the Bragg effect, and it's a necessary part of the reconstruction of the object beam in reflection holograms. In addition, holograms with a strong Bragg effect are known as thick holograms, while those with little Bragg effect are thin.

In movies, holograms can appear to move and recreate entire animated scenes in midair, but today's holograms can only mimic movement. You can get the illusion of movement by exposing one holographic emulsion multiple times at different angles using objects in different positions. The hologram only creates each image when light strikes it from the right angle. When you view this hologram from different angles, your brain interprets the differences in the images as movement. It's like you're viewing a holographic flip book. You can also use a pulsed laser that fires for a minute fraction of a second to make still holograms of objects in motion.

Dennis Gabor invented holograms in 1947. He was attempting to find a method for improving the resolution of electron microscopes. However, lasers, which are necessary for creating and displaying good holograms, were not invented until 1960. Gabor used a mercury vapor lamp, which produced monochrome blue light, and filters make his light more coherent. Gabor won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention in 1971. However, I believe that holograms will be in the future to thwart counterfeiters, for surgery purposes, to recreate images of the human brain and for animated billboards.

Recently hailed by Life Magazine as one of the medical breakthroughs for the 21st century, Voxel's medical holograms give doctors a 3-D view of the human body. A hologram of a CT or MRI scan would allow brain surgeons, for example, to measure the exact size, depth, and location of a tumor. Voxel, a company in Laguna Hills, California, creates holograms out of a patient's CT (computer tomography) or MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans. CT scans are high-resolution X rays that "photograph" cross-sectional slices of bones, as well as blood vessels and soft tissue, like the brain. MRI scans are similar but use magnetic fields to peer at soft tissue in the body. Both scans provide very detailed pictures of a person's anatomy, but only as flat images. That's where holograms come in.

Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy = any naturally occurring, theoretically inexhaustible source of energy, as biomass, solar, wind, tidal, wave, and hydroelectric power, that is not derived from fossil or nuclear fuel.

Renewable energy sources can be replenished in a short period of time. Many important events have occurred during the history of using renewable sources. The use of renewable energy is not new. 125 years ago, wood supplied up to 90 % of our energy needs. Now, some biomass that would normally be taken to the dump is converted into electricity, especially manufacturing wastes, rice hulls, and black liquor from paper production. Overall consumption from renewable sources in the United States totaled 6.8 quads (quadrillion Btu) in 2006, or about 7 % of all energy used nationally. Consumption from renewable sources was at its highest point in 1997, at about 7.2 quads.

The renewable sources used most often are:
· Hydropower
· Biomass
· Geothermal
· Wind

To begin, of the renewable energy sources that generate electricity, hydropower is the most often used. It is one of the oldest sources of energy. Because the source of hydropower is water, hydroelectric power plants must be located on a water source. Over one-half of the total U.S. hydroelectric capacity for electricity generation is concentrated in three States (Washington, California and Oregon). Irrigation, timber, mining and the building of homes are some examples of hydropower. Some problems with hydropower include fish passage and survival, water quality in reservoirs and downstream from dams, and altered flow organizations that may degrade physical habitat for fish below dams. Many economically feasible hydropower projects are financially challenged.

On the other hand, Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in plants gets passed on to animals and people that eat them. Biomass is a renewable energy source because we can always grow more trees and crops, and waste will always exist. Some examples of biomass fuels are wood, crops, manure, and some garbage. Biomass can pollute the air when it is burned, though not as much as fossil fuels. The feasibility of the utilization of woody biomass as energy resources in Japan is discussed based on its amount, availability, and energy-conversion technologies.

Next, the word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. We can use the steam and hot water produced inside the earth to heat buildings or generate electricity. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the earth. Geothermal energy is generated in the earth's core, about 4,000 miles below the surface. Scientists have been trying to recognize geothermal energy as the next leading source of energy. It is theorized that geothermal energy can be feasible and has the capability to become a prime energy source. Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues showing above ground. Geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the surface in the form of volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

Finally, wind is simple air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. Today, wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Wind is called a renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines. Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind wheat and other grains. Some examples of this of renewable energy include wind farms, turbines, and windmills. Wind energy can be feasible where the average wind velocity is higher than 5–6 m/s.

I believe that recylcing is necessary. If the people of the world do not start recycling, our universe could become a dump in the future. Hydropower, wind, biomass, and geothermal energy are just a few examples of how things can be recycled and reused. Renewable energy sources can be replenished in a short period of time. Hopefully, with the practice of recycling, we can save our world from becoming disgusting!

~Oceanography~

There are many different careers in Oceanography. I choose Geophysicists and Marine Archaeologists, and am going to look more in depth in these two careers.

Geophysicists explore the ocean floor and map submarine geologic structures. Studies of the physical and chemical properties of rocks and sediments give us valuable information about Earth’s history. The results of their work help us understand the processes that created the ocean basins and the interactions between the ocean and the sea floor. A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry-level jobs; better jobs with good advancement potential usually require at least a master’s degree. A Ph.D. degree is required for most research positions in colleges and universities and in government.

Geophysicists use their knowledge of the physical makeup and history of the Earth to locate water, mineral, and energy resources; protect the environment; predict future geologic hazards; and offer advice on construction and land use projects. By using sophisticated instruments and analyses of the Earth and water, geological scientists, also known as geoscientists, study the Earth’s geologic past and present in order to make predictions about its future. For example, they may study the Earth’s movements to try to predict when and where the next earthquake or volcano will occur and the probable impact on surrounding areas to minimize the damage.
Geophysicists may specialize in areas such as:

1. Geodesy: also called geodetics, a branch of earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth.
2. Seismology: is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic wavesthrough the Earth.

Median annual earnings of geophysicists, and oceanographers were $53,890 in 1998.

On the other hand, Marine archaeologists are involved in the systematic recovery and study of material evidence, such as shipwrecks, graves, buildings, tools, and pottery remaining from past human life and culture that is now covered by the sea. Marine archaeologists use state-of-the-art technology to locate various underwater sites. Maritime archaeology, also known as marine archaeology, studies human interaction with the sea, lakes and rivers through the study of vessels, shore side facilities, cargoes, human remains and submerged landscapes.

Some specialities of maritime archaeology are:

• Underwater archaeology: which studies the past through any submerged remains.
• Nautical archaeology: which studies vessel construction and use. Maritime archaeological sites usually result from shipwrecks or sometimes seismic catastrophes.

Marine Science graduates are employed by universities and colleges, international organizations, private companies, nonprofit laboratories and organizations, and government agencies at the federal, state and local levels. Professional positions are expected to increase in the areas of global climate change, environmental research and management, fisheries science, and marine biomedical and pharmaceutical research programs. Salaries can vary widely, depending on education, experience, and specific discipline; The median annual salary of aMarine archeologist was $60,390 in 2002 - those involved in research and development averaged $64,390.

• These two careers are very different. But if you are interested in a career dealing with the study of the ocean, either one would suit you. Personally, I think that Marine Archeology is much more interesting-only because they get to search for and examine exotic underwater objects. This pic says it all....

Big Bang Theory...

~The Big Bang theory is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during and after that moment.

~According to the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as "singularity" around 13.7 billion years ago. What is a "singularity" and where does it come from? Well, to be honest, we don't know for sure. Singularities are zones which defy our current understanding of physics. They are thought to exist at the core of "black holes." Black holes are areas of intense gravitational pressure. The pressure is thought to be so intense that finite matter is actually squished into infinite density (a mathematical concept which truly boggles the mind). These zones of infinite density are called "singularities." Our universe is thought to have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense, something - a singularity. After its initial appearance, it apparently inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded and cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and temperature of our current universe. It continues to expand and cool to this day and we are inside of it. This is the Big Bang Theory.

Common Misconceptions

~There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. For example, we tend to imagine a giant explosion. Experts however say that there was no explosion; there was (and continues to be) an expansion. Rather than imagining a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine a balloon expanding: an small balloon expanding to the size of our current universe. ~Another misconception is that we tend to image the singularity as a little fireball appearing somewhere in space. According to the many experts however, space didn't exist prior to the Big Bang. Back in the late '60s and early '70s, when men first walked upon the moon, "three British astrophysicists, Steven Hawking, George Ellis, and Roger Penrose turned their attention to the Theory of Relativity and its implications regarding our notions of time. In 1968 and 1970, they published papers in which they extended Einstein's Theory of General Relativity to include measurements of time and space. According to their calculations, time and space had a finite beginning that corresponded to the origin of matter and energy." The singularity didn't appear in space; rather, space began inside of the singularity. Prior to the singularity, nothing existed, not space, time, matter, or energy - nothing.

Big Bang Theory - Evidence for the Theory
Major evidences which support the Big Bang theory:

• First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning.
• Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted.
• Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, we should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radio-astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2.725 degree Kelvin (-454.765 degree Fahrenheit, -270.425 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB) which pervades the observable universe. This is thought to be the remnant which scientists were looking for. Penzias and Wilson shared in the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery.
• Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the observable universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins.

…Is the standard Big Bang theory the only model consistent with these evidences? No, it's just the most popular one.

Big Bang Theory - What About God?

Any discussion of the Big Bang theory would be incomplete without asking the question, what about God? This is because cosmogony (the study of the origin of the universe) is an area where science and theology meet. Creation was a supernatural event. That is, it took place outside of the natural realm. This fact begs the question: is there anything else which exists outside of the natural realm? Specifically, is there a master Architect out there? We know that this universe had a beginning.

Was God the "First Cause"?

Solar systems & galaxies

The actual definition of a solar system is the sun together with the group of celestial bodies that are held by its attraction and revolve around it, according to Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary. The solar system consists of the Sun, the eight official planets, at least three dwarf planets, more than 130 satellites of the planets, a large number of small bodies, the comets and asteroids, and the interplanetary medium. There are probably also many more planetary satellites that have not yet been discovered.

The inner solar system contains the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
The main asteroid belt lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The planets of the outer solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune; Pluto is now classified as a dwarf planet.

Traditionally, the solar system has been divided into:

1. Planets,
   
2. Their satellites (a.k.a. moons, variously sized objects orbiting the planets), asteroids (small dense objects orbiting the Sun)
   
3. And comets (small icy objects with highly eccentric orbits).

However, the solar system has been found to be more complicated than this would suggest:

• There are several moons larger than Pluto and two larger than Mercury.

• There are many small moons that are probably started out as asteroids and were only later captured by a planet; Comets sometimes fizzle out and become different from asteroids.

• The Kuiper Belt objects (including Pluto) and others like Chiron don't fit this scheme well.

• The Earth/Moon and Pluto/Charon systems are sometimes considered "double planets".

**The eight bodies officially categorized as planets are often further classified in several ways:
By composition:

• Terrestrial or rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars:

1. The terrestrial planets are composed primarily of rock and metal and have relatively high densities, slow rotation, solid surfaces, no rings and few satellites.

• Jovian or gas planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune:

1. The gas planets are composed primarily of hydrogen and helium and generally have low densities, rapid rotation, deep atmospheres, rings and lots of satellites.

By size:

• Small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.

1. The small planets have diameters less than 13000 km.

• Giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

1. The giant planets have diameters greater than 48000 km.
2. The giant planets are sometimes also referred to as gas giants.

By position relative to the Sun:

• Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

• Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

By position relative to Earth:

• Inferior planets: Mercury and Venus.

• Closer to the Sun than Earth.

1. The inferior planets show phases like the Moon's when viewed from Earth.
2. Superior planets = Mars throughNeptune.
3. Farther from the Sun than Earth.
4. The superior planets always appear full or nearly so.

By history:

• Classical planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

1. Known since prehistorical times
2. Visible to the unaided eye

• Modern planets: Uranus, Neptune.

1. Discovered in modern times
2. Visible only with optical aid

A galaxy is, by definition, any of numerous large-scale aggregates of stars, gas, and dust that constitute the universe, containing an average of 100 billion (1011) solar masses and ranging in diameter from 1,500 to 300,000 light-years. Also called nebula.

Galaxies come in different shapes and sizes. Usually they look like a flat circle with a bulge in the middle. If we were able to look at a galaxy from above, it would appear as a bright ball with arms spiraling out of it, spinning. Some different types include:

• THE ANDROMEDA GALAXY: The Andromeda galaxy is the closest galaxy to our own, the Milky Way. It is also a similar shape to the Milky Way, although it is four times bigger. It can be visible from Earth on a clear night provided there are no lights nearby illuminating the sky and the Moon is a New Moon and therefore not visible.
• TWO GALAXIES COLLIDING: The smaller galaxy would be similar to The Milky Way in size if the bigger galaxy was the Andromeda Galaxy. It is likely that the smaller galaxy is being attracted to the larger galaxy by the combined gravitational pull of the many billions of stars in its center.

• THE PINWHEEL GALAXY: This galaxy is another spiral galaxy. It spins in an anticlockwise direction, showing its spiral tails spinning around like a Catherine Wheel. These tails are very long and will take millions of years to return to the same spot that they are in now.

• ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES: Elliptical galaxies contain older stars and very little gas and dust. They can be different shapes ranging from round, to flattened, elongated spheres.

***Is there life beyond the solar system? Intelligent life?

• I think there is life...but i really don't like to think about it. It's creepy to think that aliens or a completely different species exists. What do you think???
  

*Stars*

White Dwarf

A white dwarf is what stars like our Sun become after they have exhausted their nuclear fuel. Near the end of its nuclear burning stage, such a star expels most of its outer material, creating a planetary nebula. Only the hot core of the star remains. This core becomes a very hot young white dwarf, which cools down over the course of the next billion years or so. Many nearby, young white dwarfs have been detected as sources of soft (i.e. lower-energy) X-rays; recently, soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet observations have become a powerful tool in the study the composition and structure of the thin atmosphere of these stars. A typical white dwarf is half as massive as the Sun, yet only slightly bigger than the Earth. This makes white dwarfs one of the densest forms of matter, surpassed only by neutron stars.

Red Giant

Stars convert hydrogen to helium to produce light and other radiation. As time progresses, the heavier helium sinks to the center of the star, with a shell of hydrogen around this helium center core. The hydrogen is depleted so it no longer generates enough energy and pressure to support the outer layers of the star. As the star collapses, the pressure and temperature rise until it is high enough for helium to fuse into carbon, i.e. helium burning begins. To radiate the energy produced by the helium burning, the star expands into a Red Giant.

Sun

The Sun is a star. It is the source of heat, which sustains life on Earth, and controls our climate and weather. It is the closest star to Earth, and the most closely studied. From it we have learned a great deal about the physical processes, which determine the structure and evolution of stars in general. Only the Sun's outer layers, collectively referred to as the solar 'atmosphere', can be observed directly. There are distinct regions to the solar atmosphere: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona. These three regions have substantially different properties from each other, with regions of gradual transition between them. During the maximum of the cycle, more than 100 sunspots can be seen on the Sun at once. During the minima, the Sun sometimes has no spots at all. This cycle is closely related to the magnetism of the Sun. In fact, it is the changing magnetic field of the Sun, which governs many aspects of solar activity.

Black Holes

Black holes are the evolutionary endpoints of stars at least 10 to 15 times as massive as the Sun. If a star that massive or larger undergoes a supernova explosion, it may leave behind a fairly massive burned out stellar remnant. With no outward forces to oppose gravitational forces, the remnant will collapse in on itself. The star eventually collapses to the point of zero volume and infinite density, creating what is known as a " singularity ". As the density increases, the path of light rays emitted from the star are bent and eventually wrapped irrevocably around the star. Any emitted photons are trapped into an orbit by the intense gravitational field; they will never leave it. Because no light escapes after the star reaches this infinite density, it is called a black hole. But contrary to popular myth, a black hole is not a cosmic vacuum cleaner. Since black holes are small, and light that would allow us to see them cannot escape, a black hole floating alone in space would be hard, if not impossible, to see.

I think that stars are pretty hott!! (jokin')

What do you think????

Pseudo V. Science

Science and pseudoscience are exact opposites. Science, as a working method, uses basic principles such as objectivity and accuracy to establish a finding. Science is an organized and objective search for knowledge of the world around us. Science does not discover facts, but rather it finds statements like theories or formulas. These findings of scientists are written in scientific journals that are peer-reviewed and maintain standards for honesty and accuracy. During scientific experiments, scientists must write down the exact procedures, so they can be duplicated exactly or improved upon; failures are searched for and studied closely. Arguments are based upon logical and, or, mathematical reasoning, by making the best case the data permit. Old ideas are abandoned when new evidence contradicts old ideas. Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines: natural sciences, the study of the natural world, and social sciences, the study of human behavior and society.

However, pseudoscience uses invented methods of analysis in which it pretends to meet the requirements of the scientific method; but it in fact violates its elements. Pseudoscience literature is aimed at the general public, and there is no review, no standards, and no demand for honesty or accuracy. Unlike results from scientific experiments, pseudoscience results cannot be reproduced or verified. Studies, if any, are described that someone would not be able to figure out what was done or how it was done. Also, failures within pseudoscience are ignored, excused, lied about, and avoided every time. Arguments are made upon faith and belief. Pseudoscience has a strong religious element: it tries to convert, not to convince. Furthermore, the original idea is never abandoned, whatever the evidence. Some examples of pseudoscience are: Biorhythm, the basic hypothesis of this theory is that everyone has good days and bad, Astrology, Psychology, Sociology and Acupuncture.

I am interested in, and very much allured to pseudoscience. I used to read my horoscope every day, and try to interpret it. But one day I found out that my friend, whose birthday is 5 years and 3 weeks after mine, also has the same horoscope. That’s when I stopped reading horoscopes, palm readings and similar things. I believe that much of society is very interested in these sorts of pseudosciences because they think they can make sense of the things that are going on around them. But in reality, none of it can be backed by facts like science can.

Why do you believe that society reads into things like horoscopes???